We further note that, with the exception of one study by Butsic and Brenner, (17) which examined land-cover change and water use impacts in California, all reviewed studies focus on single environmental pathways, suggesting that systematic or cumulative analyses of cannabis cultivation impacts are currently lacking. For all other pathways (land-cover change, water use, pesticide use, energy use, and air pollution), reviewed studies focused on cannabis cultivation impacts. Water pollution was the only pathway for which we found peer-reviewed documentation on the impacts of cannabis consumption, highlighting a significant knowledge gap regarding other consumption-related consequences such as wildlife or domestic animal poisoning by cannabis product litter or THC-contaminated waste. Figure 2ĭespite the broad geographic range of cannabis cultivation, we identified few empirical studies on the environment originating outside of the United States, with the exception of literature on the effects of cannabis on water pollution in urban areas. For example, in a single farm, mother plants may be kept indoors, while cloning occurs in mixed-light environments, and full plants are grown outdoors. Moreover, in practice, there are countless variations and combinations across production systems. To date, these various concerns have not been systematically researched. Both indoor and outdoor cultivation systems may be associated with air pollution risks from biogenic volatile organic compounds (BVOCs) that can be precursors to ozone formation. Outdoor farms may require fewer resource inputs, but poor management or siting can disrupt surrounding ecosystems. Indoor and mixed-light cannabis cultivation systems may require higher external inputs (e.g., energy (14) and fertilizer) but are also associated with higher yields and reduced concerns about ecosystem degradation. (8) These three production systems may impact the environment through different pathways ( Figure 2). We recognize three primary typologies of legal cannabis cultivation systems based on existing regulations: indoor, mixed-light, and outdoor. Finally, we discuss how science might contribute to minimize environmental risks and inform the development of regulations for a growing global cannabis industry. We further highlight the need to formalize existing traditional and gray literature knowledge, expand research partnerships with cannabis cultivators, and ease research restrictions on cannabis. On the basis of reviewed findings, we suggest policy directions for these pathways. Here we review peer-reviewed research on relationships between cannabis and environmental outcomes, and identify six documented impact pathways from cannabis cultivation (land-cover change, water use, pesticide use, energy use, and air pollution) and consumption (water pollution). Due to the challenges of researching quasi-legal commodities, peer-reviewed studies documenting environmental impacts of cannabis are limited, slowing the development of policies and agricultural extension guidelines needed to minimize adverse environmental outcomes. As governments regulate this formerly illegal crop, there is an urgent need to understand how cannabis may impact the environment. Riding the global waves of decriminalization, medical or recreational use of cannabis ( Cannabis sativa spp.) is now legal in more than 50 countries and U.S.
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